Monday 24 2025

Figures of Speech : English Literature NET,SET,PHD Exam

✨ Types of Figures of Speech

1. Simile

Comparison using like or as.
Ex: Her smile is like the sunshine.

2. Metaphor

Direct comparison without like/as.
Ex: Time is a thief.

3. Personification

Giving human qualities to non-human things.
Ex: The wind whispered in the trees.

4. Hyperbole

An extreme exaggeration.
Ex: I’ve told you a million times.

5. Alliteration

Repetition of initial consonant sounds.
Ex: She sells sea shells.

6. Assonance

Repetition of vowel sounds.
Ex: The eagle eats early.

7. Onomatopoeia

Words that imitate sounds.
Ex: The bees buzzed.

8. Oxymoron

Two opposite words together.
Ex: Sweet sorrow.

9. Paradox

A statement that seems false but is true.
Ex: Less is more.

10. Irony

Saying the opposite of what you mean.
Ex: A pilot afraid of heights.

11. Metonymy

One word stands for something related.
Ex: The crown made a new law.

12. Synecdoche

Part represents whole or whole for part.
Ex: All hands on deck.

13. Apostrophe

Addressing someone absent or non-living.
Ex: O Death, where is thy sting?

14. Euphemism

A polite way of saying something harsh.
Ex: He passed away.

15. Litotes

Using negative to express a positive.
Ex: She is not unhappy.

16. Pun

A wordplay with double meaning.
Ex: A boiled egg is hard to beat.

17. Antithesis

Two opposite ideas together.
Ex: Speech is silver, silence is golden.

18. Anaphora

Repetition at the beginning of sentences.
Ex: Every day, every night, every moment…

19. Epistrophe

Repetition at the end of sentences.
Ex: See no evil, hear no evil, speak no evil.

20. Chiasmus

Reversal of structure (A-B, B-A).
Ex: Never let a fool kiss you nor a kiss fool you.

21. Climax

Ideas in increasing order.
Ex: He whispered, spoke, and shouted.

22. Anti-climax

Ideas in descending order.
Ex: He lost his family, his job, and his pen.

23. Zeugma

One word used for two different meanings.
Ex: She broke his car and his heart.

24. Tautology

Unnecessary repetition of words.
Ex: It is a free gift.

25. Allusion

An indirect reference.
Ex: He is a real Romeo.

26. Allegory

A story with a hidden meaning.
Ex: Animal Farm is an allegory of the Russian Revolution.

27. Imagery

Words that create sensory pictures.
Ex: The golden sun warmed the earth.

28. Symbolism

A symbol represents a deeper idea.
Ex: A dove symbolizes peace.

29. Analogy

A comparison that explains something.
Ex: Life is like a box of chocolates.

30. Understatement

Making something seem smaller than it is.
Ex: It’s just a scratch (when it’s deep).

Sunday 23 2025

Shakespeare’s Works & Their Sources: Complete List for Students & NET Exam

Shakespeare’s plays are famous for their depth, characters, and storytelling, but many students don’t know that most of his works were inspired by earlier books, legends, and historical chronicles.

For English Literature exams like UGC NET, SET, TGT, PGT, questions often appear about the source texts behind Shakespeare’s plays.
This post gives you a simple, accurate, and complete list of Shakespeare’s major works along with their original source books.
Use these notes for quick revision, exams, or teaching.

✔ Shakespeare Works & Their Sources — Only List

Tragedies

Hamlet – Historica Danica (Saxo Grammaticus)
Macbeth – Holinshed’s Chronicles
Othello – Gli Hecatommithi (Cinthio)
King Lear – Holinshed’s Chronicles / King Leir
Romeo and Juliet – Romeus and Juliet (Arthur Brooke)
Julius Caesar – Plutarch’s Lives
Antony and Cleopatra – Plutarch’s Lives
Coriolanus – Plutarch’s Lives
Timon of Athens – Plutarch / Lucian

Histories

Henry V – Holinshed’s Chronicles
Henry IV (Part 1 & 2) – Holinshed’s Chronicles
Richard III – Holinshed’s Chronicles / Thomas More
Richard II – Holinshed’s Chronicles
Henry VI (Part 1–3) – Holinshed’s Chronicles
King John – Holinshed’s Chronicles

Comedies

The Merchant of Venice – Il Pecorone
The Taming of the Shrew – Ariosto / Gascoigne
Much Ado About Nothing – Bandello
Twelfth Night – Gl’Ingannati
As You Like It – Rosalynde
A Midsummer Night’s Dream – Classical myths
The Comedy of Errors – Plautus (Menaechmi)
All’s Well That Ends Well – Decameron
Measure for Measure – Promos and Cassandra

Romances

The Tempest – Sea Venture accounts
Cymbeline – Holinshed’s Chronicles
Pericles – Confessio Amantis (Gower)
The Winter’s Tale – Pandosto (Greene)

Poems

Venus and Adonis – Ovid
The Rape of Lucrece – Ovid

✅ MCQs on Shakespeare’s Works & Their Source Books

**1. Which Shakespeare play is based on Saxo Grammaticus’s Historica Danica?**

A. Macbeth
B. Hamlet
C. Othello
D. King Lear
Answer: B. Hamlet

**2. The Tragical History of Romeus and Juliet is the source of which play?**

A. Twelfth Night
B. Romeo and Juliet
C. The Tempest
D. Much Ado About Nothing
Answer: B. Romeo and Juliet

3. Holinshed’s Chronicles is NOT a major source for which play?

A. Macbeth
B. Henry V
C. King Lear
D. Othello
Answer: D. Othello

4. “Un Capitano Moro” by Cinthio is the source story of:

A. Othello
B. Julius Caesar
C. The Tempest
D. Timon of Athens
Answer: A. Othello

**5. Plutarch’s Lives is the main source of all the following EXCEPT:**

A. Antony and Cleopatra
B. Coriolanus
C. Julius Caesar
D. The Merchant of Venice
Answer: D. The Merchant of Venice

**6. Which Shakespeare comedy is based on an Italian play Gl’Ingannati?**

A. As You Like It
B. Twelfth Night
C. All’s Well That Ends Well
D. Much Ado About Nothing
Answer: B. Twelfth Night

**7. Rosalynde by Thomas Lodge is the source of:**

A. The Tempest
B. As You Like It
C. Measure for Measure
D. Cymbeline
Answer: B. As You Like It

**8. Pandosto by Robert Greene inspired which Shakespeare romance play?**

A. The Winter’s Tale
B. Pericles
C. Cymbeline
D. The Tempest
Answer: A. The Winter’s Tale

**9. Gower’s Confessio Amantis is the source for:**

A. Pericles
B. Cymbeline
C. Measure for Measure
D. All’s Well That Ends Well
Answer: A. Pericles

**10. Which Shakespearean tragedy draws greatly from both Holinshed and the older play King Leir?**

A. Macbeth
B. King Lear
C. Hamlet
D. Timon of Athens
Answer: B. King Lear

Conclusion:

Knowing the source books of Shakespeare’s plays helps you understand the origins of his plots, characters, and themes. These references are extremely important for competitive exams, literary analysis, and research.

Keep this list as your quick reference guide for UGC NET, SET, BA/MA English Literature, and content creation.
If you want, I can also create MCQs, PDFs, tables, flashcards, or infographic posts on the same topic.

Wednesday 12 2025

Neo-Aristotelian Criticism (also called Chicago School Criticism)

Neo-Aristotelian Criticism (also called Chicago School Criticism)

📘 Meaning:

Neo-Aristotelian criticism is a modern critical approach that revives and adapts Aristotle’s principles of literary analysis, especially those found in his Poetics. It focuses on how a literary work functions as a unified whole—its structure, plot, character, theme, and style—and how these elements produce an emotional or intellectual effect on the audience.

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🧠 Origin:

Developed in the 1930s–1940s at the University of Chicago.

Main figures: R.S. Crane, Richard McKeon, Elder Olson, and Wayne Booth.

They are known as members of the “Chicago School” of criticism.

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⚙️ Main Features:

1. Return to Aristotle’s ideas of unity, plot, and catharsis.

2. Emphasis on structure — every part of the text contributes to the whole.

3. Focus on the text itself, not on the author’s biography or reader’s feelings.

4. Analyzes plot, character, thought, diction, melody, and spectacle (Aristotle’s six elements of tragedy).

5. Objective and systematic approach to interpretation.

6. Considers genre conventions and how the work fulfills or modifies them.

7. The critic’s goal is to explain how the work achieves its effects.

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📖 Example:

If analyzing Hamlet, a Neo-Aristotelian critic would:

Examine the structure of the plot (revenge tragedy form).

Study Hamlet’s character development and motivations.

Analyze the theme of indecision and moral corruption.

Observe language, imagery, and dramatic irony as techniques.

Conclude how these elements create the play’s total emotional and intellectual effect.

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🏛️ Difference from Other Theories:

Approach Focus

Neo-Aristotelian Structure and unity of the text

New Criticism Close reading, tension, irony, ambiguity

Reader-Response Reader’s emotional reaction

Psychoanalytic Author’s or character’s subconscious

Marxist Social and class struggle in the text

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✍️ Summary :

Based on Aristotle’s Poetics.

Founded by Chicago Critics.

Studies how a work achieves its unified effect.

Focus on form, structure, and purpose.

Avoids biography, history, or reader response.

Sees literature as a crafted whole, not personal expression.

Imp Short Stories - Rip Van Winkle – Washington Irving

Short, simple summary of Rip Van Winkle by Washington Irving — plot, themes, characters, symbols, and quick NET revision table. Perfect for UGC NET English Literature revision.

📚 Important Short Stories for UGC NET English Literature

🕰️ 1. Classic / Early Modern (18th–19th Century)

🕰️ Rip Van Winkle – Washington Irving

📚 Summary for English Literature Students / UGC NET

Author: Washington Irving
Published in: The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon, Gent. (1819)
Genre: Short Story / American Romanticism / Folklore
Setting: Catskill Mountains, New York (before and after the American Revolution)

🌿 Introduction

Rip Van Winkle is one of the most famous American short stories written by Washington Irving. It blends folklore, fantasy, and realism, presenting the theme of change, time, and personal freedom. The story represents the shift from colonial America to independence and reflects the lazy yet innocent charm of rural life.

🧔 Story Summary

Rip Van Winkle is a simple, good-natured man who lives in a small village at the foot of the Catskill Mountains. He is kind and loved by everyone, especially the children. However, he is lazy and avoids work, which makes his wife, Dame Van Winkle, constantly scold him.

One day, to escape his wife’s nagging, Rip goes for a walk in the mountains with his dog, Wolf. There, he meets strange men dressed in old-fashioned Dutch clothes who are playing ninepins (a bowling-like game). They give him a drink, and after consuming it, Rip falls into a deep sleep.

When Rip wakes up, he feels strange — his gun is rusty, his beard has grown a foot long, and his dog is gone. He returns to his village only to find that everything has changed — the people, the houses, and even the government. He discovers that he has slept for twenty years, and during that time, the American Revolution has taken place. The portrait of King George III has been replaced with that of George Washington.

Rip learns that his wife has died, his friends are gone, and his children are grown up. Though confused, he accepts his new life calmly and becomes a beloved storyteller in the village, often sharing his strange tale with others.

Imp Short Stories - Rip Van Winkle – Washington Irving

💡 Themes

Change and Time: The world changes while Rip sleeps — symbolizing the inevitable flow of time and social transformation.
Freedom vs. Responsibility: Rip escapes from both his wife’s control and society’s duties. His sleep becomes a symbol of freedom.
Myth and History: Irving uses folklore to comment on America’s transition from colony to free nation.
Nature and Escape: The mountains represent peace and mystery — a place to escape reality.

🕊️ Symbols

Rip’s Sleep: Escape from social duties and historical change.
The Catskill Mountains: Mystery and transformation.
Rusty Gun & Long Beard: Passage of time.
Flag Change: Political and historical revolution.

✒️ Style and Tone

Irving’s tone is light, humorous, and reflective. The story reads like a folk tale but carries deep meaning about time, change, and identity. His simple yet elegant language makes it timeless.

📖 Conclusion

Rip Van Winkle is more than a fantasy tale — it is an allegory of change in personal and national life. Through Rip’s 20-year sleep, Washington Irving captures the transformation of America and the eternal contrast between dream and reality, past and present, and freedom and duty.

🧠 Quick Revision (for NET Exam)

Aspect	Details
Author	Washington Irving
Published	1819
Setting	Catskill Mountains, pre & post-American Revolution
Genre	Short story / Romantic / Folklore
Themes	Time, Change, Freedom, Identity
Symbolism	Sleep = Escape, Flag = Revolution
Tone	Humorous and nostalgic

🪶 Keywords / Tags

#RipVanWinkle #WashingtonIrving #EnglishLiterature #UGCNETEnglish #ShortStorySummary #AmericanRomanticismv

Tuesday 11 2025

English Language Teaching

What is ELT (English Language Teaching)?

ELT means the process of teaching English to those whose first language is not English.
It includes methods, approaches, theories, and tools used to teach reading, writing, speaking, and listening in English.

🌱 1. Origin & Development of ELT

Period	Key Idea	Major Thinkers / Theories
Grammar-Translation Period (18th–19th century)	Focused on grammar rules, translation, and memorization.	Latin & Greek influence
Direct Method (early 20th century)	Teach through speaking only, no translation, focus on everyday vocabulary.	Berlitz Schools
Audio-Lingual Method (1940s–1960s)	Based on habit formation and repetition drills.	B.F. Skinner (Behaviorism)
Communicative Approach (1970s–1980s)	Focus on communication and meaning, not just grammar.	Dell Hymes, Noam Chomsky
Post-Communicative Period (1990s–Now)	Combination of techniques — learner-centered, task-based, digital learning.	Nunan, Krashen, Larsen-Freeman

📘 2. Important ELT Approaches & Methods

(a) Grammar Translation Method (GTM)

Oldest and most traditional.
Grammar rules + translation between native & English language.
Focus: Reading & Writing (not speaking/listening).
Teacher-centered.
❌ Weakness: No fluency in communication.

(b) Direct Method

No translation; all teaching in English.
Focus: Speaking & Listening.
Use of visual aids (pictures, objects).
✅ Builds fluency.
❌ Hard for beginners.

(c) Audio-Lingual Method

Based on Behaviorism → language learning through repetition & drills.
“Practice makes perfect.”
Dialogues & pattern practice.
❌ Doesn’t focus on creativity or meaning.

(d) Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)

Most popular today.
Goal: Communicative Competence (Hymes).
Emphasizes real-life conversation, role play, pair work, group activities.
✅ Focus on fluency over accuracy.

(e) Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT)

Students learn language by doing real-world tasks.
Ex: planning a trip, making a presentation, writing an email.

(f) Silent Way

Teacher is mostly silent; students discover rules themselves.
Uses Cuisenaire rods (colored sticks).
Promotes learner independence.

(g) Suggestopedia

Created by Georgi Lozanov.
Uses music, relaxation, and positive atmosphere.
Aim: remove psychological barriers in learning.

(h) Total Physical Response (TPR)

Developed by James Asher.
Students respond physically to commands (e.g., “Stand up”, “Run”).
Best for beginners or children.

(i) Natural Approach

Developed by Stephen Krashen and Tracy Terrell.
Focus: Comprehensible input.
Learners acquire language naturally without pressure to speak early.

No.	Method / Approach	Introduced by / Developed by	Time Period	Key Features	Focus
1	Grammar-Translation Method (GTM)	Traditional (Latin & Greek teaching influence)	18th–19th century	Grammar rules, translation, memorization, written exercises	Reading & Writing
2	Direct Method (Natural Method)	Introduced by Charles Berlitz	Late 19th – early 20th century	No translation; only target language; conversation-based learning; uses real objects	Speaking & Listening
3	Audio-Lingual Method (ALM)	Based on Behaviorist theory by B.F. Skinner; developed during World War II for U.S. army training	1940s–1960s	Repetition drills, dialogues, habit formation, teacher-centered	Pronunciation, Listening, Speaking
4	Situational Language Teaching (SLT)	British linguists: A.S. Hornby, Harold Palmer, Michael West	1940s–1950s	Teaching new language in real-life “situations”; use of context	Vocabulary & Sentence patterns
5	Structural Approach	Developed by Charles C. Fries and Bloomfield’s Structural Linguistics	1950s	Language as structure (patterns); focus on sentence formation	Structure & Accuracy
6	Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)	Developed from ideas of Dell Hymes (Communicative Competence) and Noam Chomsky (Competence vs Performance)	1970s	Use of language for real communication; interaction; meaning > form	Fluency, Interaction, Meaning
7	Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT)	Prabhu (India, Bangalore Project); later popularized by David Nunan	1980s–1990s	Learn language through completing meaningful tasks (e.g., making plans, solving problems)	Communication via Tasks
8	Natural Approach	Stephen Krashen & Tracy Terrell	1983	Focus on natural acquisition, not forced learning; use of comprehensible input	Understanding & Acquisition
9	Silent Way	Caleb Gattegno	1960s	Teacher speaks very little; learners discover rules; uses Cuisenaire rods & color charts	Learner independence
10	Suggestopedia	Georgi Lozanov (Bulgarian psychologist)	1970s	Uses music, relaxation, and positive environment; lowers anxiety	Relaxed learning & memory
11	Total Physical Response (TPR)	James Asher	1960s	Students respond to commands with physical actions (e.g., “Stand up”)	Listening & Action-based learning
12	Lexical Approach	Michael Lewis	1993	Focus on vocabulary chunks and collocations, not grammar	Vocabulary in context
13	Content-Based Instruction (CBI)	Developed in U.S. & Canada (for ESL learners)	1980s	Teaching language through academic subjects or content	Learning through subject matter
14	Community Language Learning (CLL)	Charles Curran	1970s	Teacher = counselor; students = clients; group learning	Confidence & Cooperation
15	Eclectic Approach	— (Combination of methods)	Modern period (1990s–Present)	Use of various methods depending on learner needs	Flexibility & Adaptability
16	Blended Learning Approach	— (Modern digital teaching)	2000s onwards	Combines classroom + online learning; technology-based	Digital & Interactive learning

🧠 Summary

Method Key Idea (1-line memory tip)
Grammar-Translation Translate + memorize grammar
Direct Method Speak only English, no translation
Audio-Lingual Drill & repeat → habit formation
Situational Teaching Teach language in real-life situations
Structural Approach Focus on patterns & sentence structure
Communicative Talk for meaning, not grammar perfection
Task-Based Learn by doing real-world tasks
Natural Approach Understand before speaking
Silent Way Teacher silent, student active
Suggestopedia Learn with music & relaxation
TPR Learn with physical actions
Lexical Approach Learn chunks, not grammar
CBI Learn English through subjects
CLL Teacher as counselor
Eclectic Mix of methods
Blended Online + Offline teaching

Method	Key Idea (1-line memory tip)
Grammar-Translation	Translate + memorize grammar
Direct Method	Speak only English, no translation
Audio-Lingual	Drill & repeat → habit formation
Situational Teaching	Teach language in real-life situations
Structural Approach	Focus on patterns & sentence structure
Communicative	Talk for meaning, not grammar perfection
Task-Based	Learn by doing real-world tasks
Natural Approach	Understand before speaking
Silent Way	Teacher silent, student active
Suggestopedia	Learn with music & relaxation
TPR	Learn with physical actions
Lexical Approach	Learn chunks, not grammar
CBI	Learn English through subjects
CLL	Teacher as counselor
Eclectic	Mix of methods
Blended	Online + Offline teaching

🧠 3. Key Theorists and Concepts

Theorist	Concept	Explanation
Noam Chomsky	Competence vs. Performance	Knowing the rules vs. actually using them.
Dell Hymes	Communicative Competence	Ability to use language correctly & appropriately.
Stephen Krashen	Input Hypothesis	We learn when we understand language input slightly above our level (i+1).
B.F. Skinner	Behaviorism	Learning by imitation and reinforcement.
Lev Vygotsky	Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)	Learning happens with help from teachers or peers.
David Nunan	Task-Based Learning	Language is learned by completing meaningful tasks.

No. Theorist Concept / Theory Main Idea (in simple words) Impact on ELT

1 Noam Chomsky (American linguist) Competence vs. Performance (1965) • Competence: Knowledge of language (grammar in mind).• Performance: Actual use of language in real situations. Shifted focus from memorization to understanding grammar rules and language creativity. Basis for Communicative Approach.

2 Dell Hymes (Sociolinguist) Communicative Competence (1972) Knowing how and when to use language appropriately in context. Foundation of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT).

3 B.F. Skinner (Behaviorist psychologist) Behaviorism / Operant Conditioning (1957 – Verbal Behavior) Language learning = habit formation through stimulus → response → reinforcement. Gave rise to Audio-Lingual Method (drills & repetition).

4 Stephen Krashen Monitor Model / Input Hypothesis (1980s) Five main ideas: 1️⃣ Acquisition vs. Learning 2️⃣ Natural Order Hypothesis 3️⃣ Monitor Hypothesis 4️⃣ Input Hypothesis (i+1 = slightly above learner’s level) 5️⃣ Affective Filter (low anxiety helps learning) Basis of Natural Approach & Comprehensible Input theory.

5 Lev Vygotsky (Russian psychologist) Sociocultural Theory / Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) (1930s) Learners develop language better with help from peers or teacher (social interaction). Supports Collaborative & Task-Based Learning.

6 Jean Piaget (Cognitive psychologist) Constructivism / Cognitive Development Theory Learners build knowledge through experience; language helps thinking. Encouraged learner-centered teaching.

7 David Nunan Task-Based Learning Theory (1980s–1990s) Language is learned best by doing tasks (e.g., problem-solving, projects). Developed Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT).

8 Michael Halliday Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) Language functions according to context (ideational, interpersonal, textual). Influenced Functional Syllabuses and Communicative Teaching.

9 James Asher Total Physical Response (TPR) (1960s) Language learning through physical actions — listen and act. Used widely in early language teaching and ESL classes.

10 Georgi Lozanov Suggestopedia (1970s) Relaxed environment + music helps learners remember better. Promoted affective (emotional) side of language learning.

11 Caleb Gattegno Silent Way (1960s) Teacher speaks very little; students explore language themselves. Encouraged learner autonomy and discovery learning.

12 Charles Curran Community Language Learning (CLL) (1970s) Teacher = counselor; students = clients; builds confidence through group learning. Helped develop humanistic language teaching.

13 Michael Lewis Lexical Approach (1993) Language is made of chunks or collocations (not just grammar). Vocabulary teaching became central in ELT.

14 Jerome Bruner Discovery Learning / Scaffolding Learning happens best when learners discover patterns with teacher support. Influenced communicative and constructivist methods.

15 Jim Cummins BICS & CALP (1980s) • BICS: Basic conversational skills.• CALP: Academic language skills. Helped teachers understand why some learners speak fluently but struggle academically.

16 John Dewey Experiential Learning (Early 20th century) Learn by doing; experience is the base of learning. Influenced Task-Based & Project-Based approaches.

17 Wilga Rivers Interactive View of Language Learning Communication is both receptive and productive; involves interaction. Strengthened Communicative Approach.

18 H. Douglas Brown Principles of Language Learning and Teaching (1980s) Summarized theories from behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism. Helped integrate theories into ELT classroom practice.

19 Henry Widdowson Communicative Teaching Theory (1978) Emphasized language use rather than language form. One of the founders of CLT.

20 Rod Ellis Second Language Acquisition (SLA) Theories Explained how learners acquire L2 through input, interaction, and feedback. Used in TESOL and Applied Linguistics teaching.

No.	Theorist	Concept / Theory	Main Idea (in simple words)	Impact on ELT
1	Noam Chomsky (American linguist)	Competence vs. Performance (1965)	• Competence: Knowledge of language (grammar in mind).• Performance: Actual use of language in real situations.	Shifted focus from memorization to understanding grammar rules and language creativity. Basis for Communicative Approach.
2	Dell Hymes (Sociolinguist)	Communicative Competence (1972)	Knowing how and when to use language appropriately in context.	Foundation of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT).
3	B.F. Skinner (Behaviorist psychologist)	Behaviorism / Operant Conditioning (1957 – Verbal Behavior)	Language learning = habit formation through stimulus → response → reinforcement.	Gave rise to Audio-Lingual Method (drills & repetition).
4	Stephen Krashen	Monitor Model / Input Hypothesis (1980s)	Five main ideas: 1️⃣ Acquisition vs. Learning 2️⃣ Natural Order Hypothesis 3️⃣ Monitor Hypothesis 4️⃣ Input Hypothesis (i+1 = slightly above learner’s level) 5️⃣ Affective Filter (low anxiety helps learning)	Basis of Natural Approach & Comprehensible Input theory.
5	Lev Vygotsky (Russian psychologist)	Sociocultural Theory / Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) (1930s)	Learners develop language better with help from peers or teacher (social interaction).	Supports Collaborative & Task-Based Learning.
6	Jean Piaget (Cognitive psychologist)	Constructivism / Cognitive Development Theory	Learners build knowledge through experience; language helps thinking.	Encouraged learner-centered teaching.
7	David Nunan	Task-Based Learning Theory (1980s–1990s)	Language is learned best by doing tasks (e.g., problem-solving, projects).	Developed Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT).
8	Michael Halliday	Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL)	Language functions according to context (ideational, interpersonal, textual).	Influenced Functional Syllabuses and Communicative Teaching.
9	James Asher	Total Physical Response (TPR) (1960s)	Language learning through physical actions — listen and act.	Used widely in early language teaching and ESL classes.
10	Georgi Lozanov	Suggestopedia (1970s)	Relaxed environment + music helps learners remember better.	Promoted affective (emotional) side of language learning.
11	Caleb Gattegno	Silent Way (1960s)	Teacher speaks very little; students explore language themselves.	Encouraged learner autonomy and discovery learning.
12	Charles Curran	Community Language Learning (CLL) (1970s)	Teacher = counselor; students = clients; builds confidence through group learning.	Helped develop humanistic language teaching.
13	Michael Lewis	Lexical Approach (1993)	Language is made of chunks or collocations (not just grammar).	Vocabulary teaching became central in ELT.
14	Jerome Bruner	Discovery Learning / Scaffolding	Learning happens best when learners discover patterns with teacher support.	Influenced communicative and constructivist methods.
15	Jim Cummins	BICS & CALP (1980s)	• BICS: Basic conversational skills.• CALP: Academic language skills.	Helped teachers understand why some learners speak fluently but struggle academically.
16	John Dewey	Experiential Learning (Early 20th century)	Learn by doing; experience is the base of learning.	Influenced Task-Based & Project-Based approaches.
17	Wilga Rivers	Interactive View of Language Learning	Communication is both receptive and productive; involves interaction.	Strengthened Communicative Approach.
18	H. Douglas Brown	Principles of Language Learning and Teaching (1980s)	Summarized theories from behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism.	Helped integrate theories into ELT classroom practice.
19	Henry Widdowson	Communicative Teaching Theory (1978)	Emphasized language use rather than language form.	One of the founders of CLT.
20	Rod Ellis	Second Language Acquisition (SLA) Theories	Explained how learners acquire L2 through input, interaction, and feedback.	Used in TESOL and Applied Linguistics teaching.

Theory Type Main Theorists Key Idea Related ELT Methods

Behaviorism B.F. Skinner Habit formation through repetition & reinforcement Audio-Lingual Method

Cognitivism Piaget, Bruner Learning as mental process; understanding rules Cognitive / Structural Approaches

Constructivism Vygotsky, Dewey Learner builds knowledge through experience Task-Based, Discovery Learning

Humanism Curran, Lozanov, Gattegno Learner emotions & motivation are central CLL, Suggestopedia, Silent Way

Communicative / Functionalism Hymes, Halliday, Widdowson Use language for real-life communication CLT, Functional Syllabuses

Naturalism Krashen, Terrell Language acquired naturally through input Natural Approach

Lexical / Vocabulary-based Michael Lewis Language = chunks & collocations Lexical Approach

Theory Type	Main Theorists	Key Idea	Related ELT Methods
Behaviorism	B.F. Skinner	Habit formation through repetition & reinforcement	Audio-Lingual Method
Cognitivism	Piaget, Bruner	Learning as mental process; understanding rules	Cognitive / Structural Approaches
Constructivism	Vygotsky, Dewey	Learner builds knowledge through experience	Task-Based, Discovery Learning
Humanism	Curran, Lozanov, Gattegno	Learner emotions & motivation are central	CLL, Suggestopedia, Silent Way
Communicative / Functionalism	Hymes, Halliday, Widdowson	Use language for real-life communication	CLT, Functional Syllabuses
Naturalism	Krashen, Terrell	Language acquired naturally through input	Natural Approach
Lexical / Vocabulary-based	Michael Lewis	Language = chunks & collocations	Lexical Approach

🗣️ 4. Language Skills in ELT

There are four core skills:

Skill Type	Skills	Examples
Receptive	Listening & Reading	Understanding spoken or written English.
Productive	Speaking & Writing	Producing language orally or in text.

🎯 5. ELT in India

ELT introduced during British rule (Macaulay’s Minute 1835).
Today, India follows Communicative English approach in schools.
Major institutes: Central Institute of English and Foreign Languages (CIEFL) → now EFLU (Hyderabad).

💻 6. Modern Trends in ELT

Blended learning (Online + Classroom)
Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL)
Mobile Assisted Language Learning (MALL)
Flipped classroom (students learn online before class)
Use of AI, Chatbots, and YouTube for self-learning.

📜 7. ELT-related Terms (Important for NET)

Term	Meaning
L1	Mother tongue
L2	Second language
ESL	English as a Second Language
EFL	English as a Foreign Language
ESP	English for Specific Purposes (e.g., Business English)
ELT	English Language Teaching
TESOL	Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages
TEFL	Teaching English as a Foreign Language
BICS / CALP	Basic Interpersonal Communicative Skills / Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (by Cummins)

🧾 8. Quick Summary Chart

Method	Focus	Key Idea	Weakness
Grammar-Translation	Grammar	Translation & Reading	No speaking fluency
Direct	Speech	No translation, only English	Hard for beginners
Audio-Lingual	Repetition	Habit formation	No creativity
Communicative	Fluency	Real-life communication	Grammar may be weak
Task-Based	Tasks	Learn by doing	Needs planning
TPR	Actions	Physical response	Not for advanced levels

🧩 9. Expected NET Questions Example

1️⃣ Who developed the Communicative Competence theory?
👉 Dell Hymes

2️⃣ The Audio-Lingual Method is based on which theory?
👉 Behaviorism

3️⃣ “Input Hypothesis” was given by —
👉 Stephen Krashen

4️⃣ The use of “Cuisenaire rods” is a feature of —
👉 Silent Way

5️⃣ Suggestopedia was developed by —
👉 Georgi Lozanov

Saturday 08 2025

Two-Day International Conference: Environmental Humanities: A Multidisciplinary Dialogue on Ecological Agency and Crisis

🌿 CALL FOR PAPERS

🌎 Two-Day International Conference on

Environmental Humanities: A Multidisciplinary Dialogue on Ecological Agency and Crisis

🗓 Dates: April 22–23, 2026
🏛 Venue: Women’s Christian College, Kolkata, India
💻 Mode: Hybrid (Online & Offline)

🔍 About the Conference

The Department of English, Women’s Christian College (affiliated to the University of Calcutta, India) invites scholars, students, and researchers to participate in an international conference exploring the evolving field of Environmental Humanities.

This academic dialogue seeks to reimagine the intersections between ecology, culture, literature, and human–nonhuman agency. It aims to address the urgent questions surrounding environmental crises, sustainability, and ecological consciousness through interdisciplinary perspectives.

The conference is organized in collaboration with:

The University of Notre Dame, Australia
Transilvania University of Brasov, Romania
Spadina Literary Review, Canada

🧭 Conference Themes (Include but Not Limited To):

Environment, art, and literature
Gender, sexuality, and LGBTQIA+ identities in environmental contexts
Creative ecological practices and cultural agency
Environmental film, media, and popular culture
Utopia/dystopia and the environment in literary and cinematic works
Ecocriticism, phytopoetics, and semiotics of nature
Environment, posthumanism, and globalisation
Indigenous, folk, and oral knowledge systems and ecology
Religion, spirituality, and environmental consciousness
Environmental humanities in the Global North & South
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and literature
The role of ecological agency in theory, art, and activism

(Complete list available in the official brochure)

📝 Abstract Submission Guidelines

Abstract: Maximum 300 words
Include: 5 Keywords + Short Bio-note (80 words)
Format: Times New Roman, 12 pt, 1.5 spacing, bold title, no honorifics
Submit to: 📧 natlitcon.wcc@gmail.com

📆 Important Dates

Deadline for Abstract Submission: November 30, 2025
Date of Acceptance & Registration Link: December 31, 2025
Deadline for Registration: January 10, 2026
Deadline for Full Paper Submission: May 22, 2026

💰 Registration Fees

Indian Participants:

Faculty Members: ₹2000
Research Scholars/Students: ₹1500
Participation without Paper: ₹500

Foreign Participants:

$35 USD

Registration fees to be paid via Internet Banking (non-refundable).

📚 Publication Opportunity

Selected papers will be considered for publication in an edited volume under either Lexington Books (Imprint of Bloomsbury) or Brill’s African and Asian Anthropocenes Series, following peer review and publisher approval.
The volume will be jointly edited by John C. Ryan (Editor-in-Chief) and the HOD, Department of English, Women’s Christian College, Kolkata.

💳 Payment Details

Bank Name: State Bank of India
Branch: Kalighat
Account Name: Women’s Christian College Staff Welfare Fund
Account No.: 11140388874
IFSC: SBIN0001722
SWIFT Code (for foreign participants): SBININBBFXD

⚠️ Important Information

No TA/DA or accommodation will be provided for outstation participants.
Certificates will be issued only to those who present their papers.
For clarifications, contact: natlitcon.wcc@gmail.com

🌿 Join this international academic dialogue to explore how literature, art, and culture can help us rethink the relationship between humanity and the environment.

#EnvironmentalHumanities #EcoCriticism #Sustainability #Anthropocene #ClimateCrisis #AcademicConference #CallForPapers #GlobalDialogue #WCCKolkata #ResearchConference #EnvironmentalStudies

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