W.B. Yeats
William Butler Yeats (1865–1939) was a renowned Irish poet, dramatist, and mystic, and one of the most important literary figures of the 20th century. He played a pivotal role in the Irish Literary Revival, co-founding the Abbey Theatre to promote Irish drama and culture. Yeats’ work evolved through distinct phases—from early romantic and folklore-inspired poetry, to nationalist and political themes, and finally to symbolist and modernist poetry exploring mysticism, aging, and spirituality.
He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1923 “for his inspired poetry which gives expression to the spirit of a whole nation.” His poetry is known for its symbolism, use of Irish mythology, themes of nationalism, mysticism, love, and aging, making him a bridge between Romanticism and Modernism.
W.B. Yeats – Overview
Full Name: William Butler Yeats
Lifespan: 1865–1939
Nationality: Irish
Profession: Poet, playwright, essayist, mystic
W.B. Yeats was one of the most influential figures in 20th-century literature and a key personality in the Irish Literary Revival. He co-founded the Abbey Theatre to promote Irish drama and culture. Yeats’ literary career evolved through three main phases:
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Early Phase (1885–1900): Romantic and folklore-inspired poetry (The Wanderings of Oisin, The Lake Isle of Innisfree).
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Middle Phase (1900–1916): Focus on nationalism and political themes (Responsibilities, Easter, 1916, Cathleen ni Houlihan).
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Later/Modernist Phase (1919–1939): Symbolist and mystical poetry reflecting aging, spirituality, and philosophy (The Second Coming, Sailing to Byzantium, The Tower).
Major Themes:
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Irish nationalism and cultural revival
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Mysticism, occult, and folklore
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Love, aging, and immortality
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Symbolism and spiritual quest
Important Works:
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Poems: The Lake Isle of Innisfree, The Second Coming, Sailing to Byzantium, Easter, 1916, The Wild Swans at Coole
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Plays: The Countess Cathleen, Cathleen ni Houlihan, The Land of Heart’s Desire
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Prose: The Celtic Twilight, Fairy and Folk Tales of the Irish Peasantry
Awards & Recognition:
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Nobel Prize in Literature, 1923 – “for his inspired poetry which gives expression to the spirit of a whole nation.”
Significance:
- Yeats’ work bridges Romanticism and Modernism, blending Irish cultural identity, mythology, and symbolism. His poetry and plays continue to be central in the study of English literature globally.
- Co-founded the Abbey Theatre (1904) with Lady Gregory and Edward Martyn.
- Things Fall Apart (1958)_ by Chinua Achebe takes its title directly from W.B. Yeats’ poem The Second Coming (1919).
- In The Second Coming, Yeats wrote:
- “Things fall apart; the centre cannot hold; / Mere anarchy is loosed upon the world.”
Irish Literary Revival: Yeats played a central role in reviving Irish literature, folklore, and drama.
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Abbey Theatre (1904): Co-founded with Lady Gregory to promote Irish plays.
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Symbolism Influence: Inspired by French Symbolists like Stéphane Mallarmé and mystical traditions.
Sailing to Byzantium – W.B. Yeats (1928)
Context:
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Written during Yeats’ later period, reflecting on aging, mortality, and the search for spiritual transcendence.
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Byzantium (modern-day Istanbul) symbolizes a realm of eternal art, culture, and spiritual permanence, contrasting with the natural, fleeting life.
Key Themes:
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Aging and mortality: The poet contrasts the vitality of youth with the decay of old age.
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Immortality through art: Art is portrayed as a means to achieve permanence beyond physical life.
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Spiritual transcendence: Emphasizes the soul’s journey from the temporal to the eternal.
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Separation from nature: The poem views the natural world as temporal, whereas art and spirit are eternal.
Structure & Style:
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Written in four octaves (eight-line stanzas).
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Combines lyrical style, symbolism, and classical references.
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Rich in imagery of birds, art, and gold representing eternal beauty.
Famous Lines:
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“That is no country for old men. The young / In one another’s arms…”
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“An aged man is but a paltry thing, / A tattered coat upon a stick…”
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“Once out of nature I shall never take / My bodily form from any natural thing…”
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“O sages standing in God’s holy fire / As in the gold mosaic of a wall…”
Significance:
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Highlights Yeats’ preoccupation with mortality, art, and eternal values.
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Symbolizes the artist’s desire to transcend the physical world through creativity.
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A key poem representing Yeats’ mature modernist phase.
Works:
1. Poetry Collections
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The Wanderings of Oisin (1889) – Epic poem based on Irish mythology.
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The Lake Isle of Innisfree (1890) – Famous early lyric poem.
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The Countess Kathleen and Various Legends and Lyrics (1892)
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The Secret Rose (1897) – Symbolist poetry collection.
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The Wind Among the Reeds (1899) – Includes mystical and Irish folklore-inspired poems.
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The Green Helmet and Other Poems (1910)
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Responsibilities (1914) – Includes poems on politics and personal reflections.
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The Wild Swans at Coole (1917, revised 1919) – Reflects aging, Irish nationalism, and nature.
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The Tower (1928) – Mature poetry exploring aging, art, and symbolism.
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The Winding Stair and Other Poems (1933) – Themes of philosophy, mysticism, and history.
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Last Poems and Two Plays (1939) – Final collection before his death.
2. Plays (Mostly Symbolist/Irish Mythology)
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The Countess Cathleen (1892)
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The Land of Heart’s Desire (1894)
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The Unicorn from the Stars (1896)
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The Dreaming of the Bones (1903)
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The Resurrection (1903)
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The King of the Fairies (1903)
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Deirdre (1907) – Based on Irish legend.
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Cathleen ni Houlihan (1902) – Co-written with Lady Gregory; nationalist theme.
3. Prose and Essays
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Fairy and Folk Tales of the Irish Peasantry (1888) – Collected folklore.
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The Celtic Twilight (1893) – Essays on Irish myths, folklore, and occult.
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Ideas of Good and Evil (1903) – Philosophical essays.
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Autobiographies: “Reveries over Childhood and Youth” (1916), “The Trembling of the Veil” (1922), “The Gift of Harun al-Rashid” (1924) – Reflections on life and art.
4. Famous Individual Poems
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The Second Coming (1919) – Apocalyptic vision.
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Sailing to Byzantium (1928) – Immortality and art.
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Leda and the Swan (1924) – Mythological theme.
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Easter, 1916 (1916) – Irish nationalist uprising.
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The Song of Wandering Aengus (1899) – Irish myth and romantic quest.
The Second Coming – W.B. Yeats (1919)
Context:
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Written in the aftermath of World War I and during the Irish revolutionary period.
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Reflects political chaos, social disorder, and spiritual crisis in Europe and Ireland.
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Symbolizes the decline of traditional order and the approach of a new, unsettling era.
Key Themes:
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Anarchy and chaos: “Things fall apart; the centre cannot hold.”
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Apocalyptic vision: The poem anticipates a dramatic transformation of the world.
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Mythical imagery: Introduction of a “rough beast” slouching towards Bethlehem, symbolizing a new, ominous force.
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Spiritual crisis: Loss of moral and spiritual guidance in society.
Structure & Style:
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Written in free verse with irregular rhythm.
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Rich in symbolism and prophetic tone.
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Strong imagery drawn from mythology and biblical references.
Famous Lines:
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“Things fall apart; the centre cannot hold; / Mere anarchy is loosed upon the world.”
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“The blood-dimmed tide is loosed, and everywhere / The ceremony of innocence is drowned.”
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“And what rough beast, its hour come round at last, / Slouches towards Bethlehem to be born?”
Significance:
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Marks Yeats’ modernist phase.
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Represents historical upheaval and human anxiety in early 20th century.
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Frequently studied for symbolism, apocalyptic imagery, and socio-political commentary.
Leda and the Swan – W.B. Yeats (1924)
Context:
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Written during Yeats’ modernist phase.
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Inspired by Greek mythology: Zeus, in the form of a swan, seduces/assaults Leda, the Spartan queen.
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Explores themes of violence, power, and the intersection of the mortal and divine.
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Often interpreted as a symbolic commentary on historical and political upheaval (e.g., foreshadowing the fall of Troy).
Key Themes:
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Mythology and history: The poem links a mythical event to human destiny and historical consequences.
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Violence and power: The act of Zeus represents the inevitability of force and domination.
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Human vulnerability: Explores the helplessness of humans against greater powers.
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Predestination: Suggests that small, personal actions can have huge historical outcomes.
Structure & Style:
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Written in iambic pentameter (blank verse).
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Dramatic and vivid imagery, capturing the violent intensity of the event.
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Symbolism connects physical act with historical consequences.
Famous Lines:
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“A sudden blow: the great wings beating still / Above the staggering girl, her thighs caressed…”
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“Did she put on his knowledge with his power / Before the indifferent beak could let her drop?”
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“Byzantium’s fire / or Trojan ruin?” (implied in its historical allusion)
Significance:
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One of Yeats’ most powerful mythological poems.
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Explores the tension between human frailty and divine force.
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Often studied for symbolism, historical foreshadowing, and modernist technique.
MCQs on W.B. Yeats
1. When was W.B. Yeats awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature?
A) 1923
B) 1929
C) 1936
D) 1945
Answer: B) 1923
2. Which of the following is a famous play by W.B. Yeats?
A) The Playboy of the Western World
B) The Countess Cathleen
C) Pygmalion
D) The Importance of Being Earnest
Answer: B) The Countess Cathleen
3. W.B. Yeats was associated with which literary movement?
A) Romanticism
B) Symbolism & Irish Literary Revival
C) Modernism only
D) Realism
Answer: B) Symbolism & Irish Literary Revival
4. Which poem by Yeats includes the line: “The world is full of magic things, patiently waiting for our senses to grow sharper”?
A) The Second Coming
B) The Celtic Twilight
C) The Song of Wandering Aengus
D) Easter, 1916
Answer: C) The Song of Wandering Aengus
5. In which poem does Yeats write about the “rough beast slouching towards Bethlehem”?
A) Sailing to Byzantium
B) The Second Coming
C) Leda and the Swan
D) Byzantium
Answer: B) The Second Coming
6. Which of the following themes is central in Yeats’ poetry?
A) Irish nationalism
B) Mysticism and occult
C) Love and aging
D) All of the above
Answer: D) All of the above
7. Yeats co-founded which influential literary organization in Ireland?
A) Abbey Theatre
B) Dublin Writers’ Guild
C) Irish Renaissance Club
D) Royal Irish Academy
Answer: A) Abbey Theatre
8. “Sailing to Byzantium” by Yeats primarily deals with:
A) Nature and landscape
B) Love and romance
C) Spiritual transcendence and immortality
D) Political revolt
Answer: C) Spiritual transcendence and immortality
9. Yeats’ poem “Easter, 1916” is about:
A) The Irish nationalist uprising against British rule
B) Mythological Ireland
C) Irish countryside
D) His personal love life
Answer: A) The Irish nationalist uprising against British rule
10. Yeats’ early poetry was heavily influenced by:
A) William Blake
B) Romantic poets & Irish folklore
C) T.S. Eliot
D) Shakespeare
Answer: B) Romantic poets & Irish folklore
Quotes
1. From The Second Coming (1919)
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“Things fall apart; the centre cannot hold; / Mere anarchy is loosed upon the world.”
-
“The blood-dimmed tide is loosed, and everywhere / The ceremony of innocence is drowned.”
-
“And what rough beast, its hour come round at last, / Slouches towards Bethlehem to be born?”
2. From Sailing to Byzantium (1928)
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“That is no country for old men. The young / In one another’s arms…”
-
“An aged man is but a paltry thing, / A tattered coat upon a stick…”
-
“Once out of nature I shall never take / My bodily form from any natural thing.”
-
“O sages standing in God’s holy fire / As in the gold mosaic of a wall…”
3. From Leda and the Swan (1924)
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“A sudden blow: the great wings beating still / Above the staggering girl, her thighs caressed…”
-
“Did she put on his knowledge with his power / Before the indifferent beak could let her drop?”
4. From Easter, 1916
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“All changed, changed utterly: / A terrible beauty is born.”
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“Too long a sacrifice / Can make a stone of the heart.”
5. From The Wild Swans at Coole (1917)
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“The nineteenth autumn has come upon me / Since I first made my count…”
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“And now my heart is sore… / I have looked upon those brilliant creatures.”
6. From The Song of Wandering Aengus (1899)
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“I went out to the hazel wood, / Because a fire was in my head.”
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“And pluck till time and times are done / The silver apples of the moon, / The golden apples of the sun.”
Quick Important Points on W.B. Yeats for UGC NET English Literature preparation:
1. Life & Background
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Full Name: William Butler Yeats (1865–1939)
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Born in Dublin, Ireland; influential Irish poet, dramatist, and mystic.
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Associated with Irish Literary Revival and Symbolism.
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Co-founded Abbey Theatre (1904) with Lady Gregory.
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Won Nobel Prize in Literature, 1923 for “inspired poetry giving expression to the spirit of a whole nation.”
2. Literary Phases
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Early Phase (1885–1900)
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Influenced by Romantic poets, Irish folklore, legends, and mysticism.
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Works: The Wanderings of Oisin, The Lake Isle of Innisfree, The Wind Among the Reeds.
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Middle Phase (1900–1916)
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Focus on Irish nationalism, personal responsibility, and social themes.
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Works: Responsibilities, Easter, 1916, Cathleen ni Houlihan (play).
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Later / Modernist Phase (1919–1939)
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Symbolism, mysticism, aging, philosophy, and apocalyptic visions.
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Works: The Second Coming, Sailing to Byzantium, The Tower, The Winding Stair.
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3. Key Themes in Yeats’ Works
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Irish nationalism & cultural revival – Easter, 1916, Cathleen ni Houlihan
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Mysticism & occult – The Celtic Twilight, The Tower
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Love & aging – The Wild Swans at Coole, Sailing to Byzantium
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Mythology & folklore – The Song of Wandering Aengus, Deirdre
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Symbolism & spiritual quest – The Second Coming, Sailing to Byzantium
4. Important Poems & Plays
Poems:
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The Lake Isle of Innisfree – solitude, peace, nature
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The Second Coming – modernist, apocalyptic imagery
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Sailing to Byzantium – immortality, art, spirituality
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Easter, 1916 – Irish nationalist uprising
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The Wild Swans at Coole – aging, nature, reflection
Plays:
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The Countess Cathleen – morality, Irish legend
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Cathleen ni Houlihan – nationalism and cultural revival
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The Land of Heart’s Desire – fairy symbolism
5.
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Symbolist influence: French Symbolist poets (e.g., Stéphane Mallarmé)
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Themes: Nationalism, mysticism, folklore, aging, immortality
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Style: Early lyricism → later symbolism and modernist abstraction
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Critical Importance: Seen as a bridge between Romantic Irish literature and Modernist poetry
