NEW CRITICISM

NEW CRITICISM 

New Criticism is a literary theory that focuses only on the text itself, not the author, history, or reader.

New Criticism is a formalist theory that treats the literary text as an independent, self-sufficient object and analyses its internal elements.

It started in 1920–1940 in America and England


Main idea:

The text is independent and contains its own meaning.

Key features:


Focus on close reading
Study of imagery, irony, paradox, symbol, tension
Rejects author’s intention and reader’s emotion
Text is a self-contained object

Famous critics:

Cleanth Brooks
T. S. Eliot
I. A. Richards
John Crowe Ransom


Example:

New Critics analyse paradox in poetry like:

Main Principles

1. Close Reading

Detailed analysis of:

imagery
paradox
irony
symbol
tension


2. Intentional Fallacy
Term by:

W. K. Wimsatt
Monroe Beardsley

Meaning:

Author’s intention should not be used to interpret text.


3. Affective Fallacy

Meaning:

Reader’s emotion is irrelevant.

Text meaning ≠ reader feeling


4. Heresy of Paraphrase

Term by:

Cleanth Brooks

Meaning:

Poetry meaning cannot be simplified.

Famous Books

• The Well Wrought Urn – Cleanth Brooks

• Principles of Literary Criticism – I. A. Richards

• The New Criticism – John Crowe Ransom


I. A. Richards’ Experiment (VERY IMPORTANT FOR NET)

What he did

At University of Cambridge, Richards gave poems to his students without:

Author name ❌
Title ❌
Date ❌
Background ❌

Only the poem text was given.

Purpose of experiment

To test:

👉 How students understand poetry
👉 How readers misinterpret poems

He wanted pure response to text
What he discovered

He found students made many mistakes due to:

Stock responses (fixed ideas)
Emotional reactions
Lack of close reading
Personal bias
Conclusion of experiment
Richards concluded:
✅ Readers must do careful and close reading

✅ Focus on words of text only
This method became: Practical Criticism

I. A. Richards’ experiment:

👉 He gave anonymous poems to Cambridge students to develop Practical Criticism.

Key Terms for NET

Tension
Irony
Paradox
Unity
Ambiguity (term by William Empson)

I. A. Richards is called the father of modern practical criticism and one of the founders of New Criticism.
His major books:
Principles of Literary Criticism
Practical Criticism

Richards’ Main Views

1. Practical Criticism (Most Important)

Richards introduced the method of Practical Criticism

Meaning:

Study the text without knowing the author, history, or background

He gave poems to students without author names and asked them to interpret.

👉 Purpose: Focus only on text

This method later influenced New Criticism.


2. Four Kinds of Meaning (VERY IMPORTANT FOR NET)

Richards said poetry has four meanings

1 Sense

Literal meaning

(simple meaning)

2 Feeling
Emotion of the author
3 Tone
Author’s attitude toward reader
4 Intention
Author’s purpose
Example
Sentence:
“You are a brave man”
Sense → statement

Feeling → admiration

Tone → praise

Intention → appreciation

3. Poetry balances emotions
Richards believed:
👉 Poetry creates balance in human emotions

👉 Poetry has psychological function

4. Communication Theory
Richards said:
Literature is a form of communication between author and reader
Language is very important

Introduction

William Empson is a major critic associated with New Criticism, but his unique contribution is the concept of Ambiguity in poetry.

His famous book:

Seven Types of Ambiguity
⸻
Empson’s Main View: Ambiguity
Definition
Ambiguity means multiple meanings in a single word, phrase, or sentence.
Empson believed:

👉 Great poetry is rich because it has multiple layers of meaning

👉 Ambiguity makes poetry complex and powerful
⸻
Why Ambiguity is important?

According to Empson:

• Poetry is not simple

• It expresses complex human feelings

• Multiple meanings create depth

⸻

Example
Line:

“Bare ruined choirs, where late the sweet birds sang”

Meaning:

1. Literal meaning → Empty church

2. Hidden meaning → Old age, loss, death

👉 This is ambiguity

⸻
Empson’s 7 Types of Ambiguity (NET level short points)

Type 1

One word has several meanings

Type 2

Two meanings resolved into one


Type 3
Two meanings connected

Type 4

Alternative meanings create complexity

Type 5

Author discovers idea while writing

Type 6

Contradictory meanings
Type 7 (Most complex)
Total contradiction
⸻
Empson and New Criticism

Empson focused on:

• Close reading ✅

• Language analysis ✅

• Internal meaning ✅

But different from other New Critics because:

👉 He focuses especially on language complexity


• Period → 1920–1940

• Origin → America

• Theory type → Formalism

• Focus → Text itself

• Method → Close Reading

• Rejects → Author intention & reader emotion


Key Terms

• Paradox

• Irony

• Tension

• Ambiguity

• Unity


Important Critics

• I. A. Richards – Practical Criticism

• Cleanth Brooks – Paradox

• William Empson – Ambiguity

• John Crowe Ransom – Named “New Criticism”


Important Terms for NET

• Intentional Fallacy

• Affective Fallacy

• Heresy of Paraphrase


One-Line

New Criticism = Text-centered theory

Conclusion 

New Criticism is a literary theory that focuses only on the text itself. It says that to understand a poem or story, students should carefully read the words, language, imagery, irony, and symbols inside the text. It does not consider the author’s life, history, or reader’s personal feelings. The meaning is present within the text. Critics like I. A. Richards, Cleanth Brooks, and William Empson believed in close reading to find the deeper meaning of literature.