Explore the Caroline & Commonwealth Era (1625–1660): Cavalier & Metaphysical poets, Milton, prose, drama, key works for UGC NET JRF English.

 Caroline & Commonwealth Era (1625–1660)

Introduction:

The Caroline & Commonwealth Era (1625–1660) in English Literature represents a transitional phase between the Renaissance exuberance of the Elizabethan-Jacobean period and the austere, intellectual writings of the Restoration.

🏰 Historical Background

1. Caroline Era (1625–1649)

• Named after King Charles I (Latin: Carolus) who succeeded James I in 1625.
• Court culture was marked by refinement, elegance, loyalty to monarchy, and the arts.
• Royalist literature flourished at court.
• The King’s belief in the divine right of kings led to conflict with Parliament.
• This political tension culminated in the English Civil War (1642–1651) between:

1. Royalists (Cavaliers) supporting Charles I.
2. Parliamentarians (Roundheads) led by Oliver Cromwell.

2. Civil War & Execution of Charles I (1649)

• Civil War began in 1642.
• Charles I was defeated, tried, and executed in 1649.
• England became a Commonwealth (Republic) under Oliver Cromwell.

3. Commonwealth Era (1649–1660)

• Known as the Puritan Age in literature.
• Cromwell ruled as Lord Protector (1653–1658).
• Society became strict and austere:
• Theatre banned (1642–1660).
• Strict censorship of printing and literature.
• Religious sermons, pamphlets, and moral prose dominated.
• This period fostered political, religious, and philosophical writings, especially by Puritan writers.

4. Restoration (1660)

• In 1660, monarchy was restored under Charles II.
• Marks the end of the Commonwealth Era and the beginning of the Restoration Age.

✒️ Literary Characteristics

1. Poetry:

   • Rise of Cavalier Poets (Royalist poets) – Richard Lovelace, Sir John Suckling, Thomas Carew, Robert Herrick.

   • Their poetry celebrated loyalty to the king, courtly love, wit, brevity, and elegance.

   • Influence of Metaphysical Poets like John Donne continued, especially in intellectual conceits and lyrical intensity.

2. Prose:

   • Flourished during the Commonwealth, focusing on religious controversies, political pamphlets, Puritan sermons, and polemical writings.

   • John Milton became the central figure – his prose works (Areopagitica, 1644) defended freedom of the press.

3. Drama:

   • The Caroline stage included dramatists like Philip Massinger, James Shirley, John Ford.

   • Theatre was suppressed in 1642 by Puritan authorities, halting dramatic production until the Restoration.

4. Milton’s Contribution:

   • Early poetry (Lycidas, 1637) reflected pastoral elegy tradition.

   • Later works (Paradise Lost, written after the Commonwealth) were deeply influenced by Puritan theology and republican ideals.

📚 Significance for Students (UGC NET / SET / JRF / PhD)

• Keywords for exam prep: Cavalier vs. Puritan writers, Milton’s prose and poetry, suppression of theatre 1642, Royalist vs. Commonwealth literature, metaphysical tradition.

• This era demonstrates the conflict between art, politics, and religion, a recurring theme in English literary history.

✒️ Major Writers & Their Works

🌹 Cavalier Poets (Royalists – “Sons of Ben”)

• Wrote light, elegant, courtly poetry; influenced by Ben Jonson.

1. Robert Herrick (1591–1674) – Hesperides (1648), To the Virgins, to Make Much of Time.

2. Richard Lovelace (1618–1657) – To Althea, from Prison; To Lucasta, Going to the Wars.

3. Sir John Suckling (1609–1642) – Ballad Upon a Wedding, witty love lyrics, courtly verse.

4. Thomas Carew (1595–1640) – A Rapture, An Elegy on Donne.

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🔮 Metaphysical Poets (intellectual, wit, conceits)

• Though earlier associated with John Donne (d. 1631), influence continued.

• In Caroline era: Henry Vaughan, Andrew Marvell.

• Works:

  • Henry Vaughan (1621–1695) – Silex Scintillans.

  • Andrew Marvell (1621–1678) – To His Coy Mistress, The Garden.

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📚 Prose Writers of the Commonwealth

• Prose flourished due to censorship of drama.

1. John Milton (1608–1674) – Greatest figure.

   • Early poetry: L’Allegro (1632), Il Penseroso (1632), Comus (1634), Lycidas (1637).

   • Prose: Areopagitica (1644 – defense of press freedom).

   • Later poetry: Paradise Lost (1667), Paradise Regained (1671), Samson Agonistes (1671).

2. Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679) – Leviathan (1651), political philosophy.

3. Jeremy Taylor (1613–1667) – Holy Living (1650), Holy Dying (1651).

4. Thomas Browne (1605–1682) – Religio Medici (1643), Hydriotaphia, or Urn Burial (1658).

5. Izaak Walton (1593–1683) – The Compleat Angler (1653).

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🎭 Drama (Caroline Stage)

• Before theatre suppression in 1642:

1. Philip Massinger (1583–1640) – A New Way to Pay Old Debts.

2. John Ford (1586–1640?) – ’Tis Pity She’s a Whore.

3. James Shirley (1596–1666) – The Cardinal, last of pre-Commonwealth dramatists.

After 1642, drama was banned until Restoration.

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🎯 Summary for NET/SET/JRF/PhD Students

• Caroline Era = Royalist/Court literature → Cavalier Poets, dramatists.

• Commonwealth Era = Puritan, prose-dominated → Milton, Hobbes, religious writings.

• Key Exam Points:

• Suppression of theatre (1642).

• Milton’s prose (Areopagitica).

• Cavalier vs. Metaphysical poets.

• Political & religious prose.

• 📌 Quick Grouping by Writers

  🌹 Cavalier Poets (1625–1649)

  • Robert Herrick (Hesperides, 1648)

  • Richard Lovelace (To Althea, from Prison)

  • Sir John Suckling (Ballad Upon a Wedding)

  • Thomas Carew (A Rapture)

  🔮 Metaphysical Poets

  • George Herbert (The Temple, 1633)

  • Richard Crashaw (Steps to the Temple, 1646)

  • Henry Vaughan (Silex Scintillans, 1650, 1655)

  • Andrew Marvell (To His Coy Mistress, 1650s circulation, published 1681)

  • Abraham Cowley (The Mistress, 1647)

  📚 Prose Writers (Commonwealth Era)

  • John Milton (Areopagitica, 1644)

  • Thomas Hobbes (Leviathan, 1651)

  • Jeremy Taylor (Holy Living, 1650; Holy Dying, 1651)

  • Thomas Browne (Religio Medici, 1643; Urn Burial, 1658)

  • Izaak Walton (The Compleat Angler, 1653)

  🎭 Dramatists (till 1642 ban)

• Philip Massinger (A New Way to Pay Old Debts)

• John Ford (’Tis Pity She’s a Whore)

• James Shirley (The Cardinal)

Year/Period	Historical Context	Writers Active	Key Works
1625	Accession of Charles I → Start of Caroline Era	—	—
1620s–1630s	Royalist court culture, refinement	Cavalier Poets: Thomas Carew (A Rapture), John Suckling (Ballad Upon a Wedding)	Courtly lyrics, carpe diem
1631	Death of John Donne (Metaphysical leader)	Donne’s legacy influences Herbert, Crashaw	Holy Sonnets (posthumous)
1633	—	George Herbert	The Temple
1634	Court masques	John Milton	Comus
1637	—	Milton	Lycidas (pastoral elegy)
1640	Political crisis begins	Thomas Carew (dies 1640), Cavalier poetry in vogue	Elegy on Donne
1642	Civil War begins; Parliament vs. King. Theatres closed by Puritans	Drama suppressed	—
1643	Early Commonwealth prose	Thomas Browne	Religio Medici
1644	Puritan censorship of press	Milton	Areopagitica (freedom of press)
1646	—	Richard Crashaw	Steps to the Temple
1648	Civil War intensifies	Robert Herrick	Hesperides (includes To the Virgins, to Make Much of Time)
1649	Execution of Charles I → Start of Commonwealth	—	End of Caroline Era
1650	Puritan austerity	Henry Vaughan	Silex Scintillans
1651	—	Thomas Hobbes	Leviathan (political philosophy)
1653	Cromwell as Lord Protector	Izaak Walton	The Compleat Angler
1655	Puritan rule continues	Henry Vaughan (second part of Silex Scintillans)	Religious poetry
1658	Death of Cromwell	—	Transition to Restoration
1660	Monarchy restored (Charles II) → Start of Restoration Era	John Milton (imprisoned, later releases Paradise Lost in 1667)	—

• 🎯 MCQs on Caroline & Commonwealth Era (1625–1660)

  1. The Caroline Era in English Literature is associated with which monarch?

  a) James I
  b) Charles I
  c) Oliver Cromwell
  d) Charles II

  Answer: b) Charles I

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  2. Theatres in England were officially closed in:

  a) 1625
  b) 1642
  c) 1649
  d) 1660

  Answer: b) 1642

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  3. Which of the following is NOT a Cavalier Poet?

  a) Richard Lovelace
  b) Thomas Carew
  c) Robert Herrick
  d) George Herbert

  Answer: d) George Herbert (he is a Metaphysical poet)

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  4. Who wrote Hesperides (1648)?

  a) Richard Crashaw
  b) Robert Herrick
  c) Sir John Suckling
  d) Abraham Cowley

  Answer: b) Robert Herrick

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  5. “Stone walls do not a prison make, nor iron bars a cage” is written by:

  a) Sir John Suckling
  b) Richard Lovelace
  c) Thomas Carew
  d) Andrew Marvell

  Answer: b) Richard Lovelace (To Althea, from Prison)

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  6. Which prose work by John Milton defended the freedom of the press?

  a) Lycidas
  b) Paradise Lost
  c) Areopagitica
  d) Comus

  Answer: c) Areopagitica

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  7. Leviathan (1651), a political treatise, was written by:

  a) Jeremy Taylor
  b) Thomas Hobbes
  c) Thomas Browne
  d) Izaak Walton

  Answer: b) Thomas Hobbes

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  8. Which of the following works is by Henry Vaughan?

  a) The Temple
  b) Steps to the Temple
  c) Silex Scintillans
  d) The Mistress

  Answer: c) Silex Scintillans

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  9. ’Tis Pity She’s a Whore is a tragedy written by:

  a) Philip Massinger
  b) James Shirley
  c) John Ford
  d) William Davenant

  Answer: c) John Ford

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  10. Match the following poets with their famous works:

  1. Thomas Carew → a) Ballad Upon a Wedding

  2. John Suckling → b) A Rapture

  3. Robert Herrick → c) Hesperides

  4. Richard Crashaw → d) Steps to the Temple

  Correct Match:

  • Carew → b

  • Suckling → a

  • Herrick → c

  • Crashaw → d

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✅ Conclusion:
The Caroline & Commonwealth Era (1625–1660) reflects the tensions of monarchy vs. Puritanism, art vs. censorship, and courtly elegance vs. religious austerity. For UGC NET/SET/JRF students, mastering this period is crucial to understanding the evolution of 17th-century English literature leading to the Restoration Age.

read more Cavalier Poetry – Literary Movement, Metaphysical Poetry – Literary Movement